First Opium War

Examine the diverse interests inwards the Chinese Trade. What according to yous atomic number 82 to the First Sino-British War?

The First Sino-Anglo War of 1839-42 is an of import landmark lawsuit inwards the history of Chinese history. Many scholars consider it to live the inaugural off milestone inwards modern Chinese history because of its profound impact. However, the causes as well as nature of this state of war are a thing of keen debate. Some believe that it occurred due to a clash of civilizations equally a outcome of the traditional value arrangement of the Chinese based on Confucianism as well as the prevailing notion of ‘Sino-centrism’, which influenced her mental attitude towards the foreigners; piece others believe that it was the clash of economical interests betwixt the British as well as the Chinese Empire that brought the 2 of them into opened upwards warfare against each other. Thus, before nosotros pop off into this debate it is of import to sympathise the context as well as the background to the state of war peculiarly amongst honor to the Chinese polity, economic scheme as well as monastic tell as well as its relations amongst foreigners.

Prior to the Opium Wars China was unopen or to a greater extent than accurately, it highly controlled its contacts amongst the exterior world. Thus relations betwixt China as well as its neighbours, as well as afterwards the Westerners, till the inaugural off Opium War were essentially relations of inequality, maintained on Chinese terms, inwards accordance amongst the basic tenets of Chinese philosophy.

This dominant Chinese philosophy which governed Chinese life inwards all spheres was Confucianism. Developed over the years it was the official province philosophy aimed at achieving social harmony as well as political stability. It had larn a way of life for a large number of Chinese people, giving them a pragmatic as well as practical code of ethics as well as values past times which to atomic number 82 their lives. The continuity of Chinese civilization as well as the conservatism that both caused it as well as followed from it rested on a job solid base of operations of tradition, ane of the most fully formed, fixed, as well as binding Earth has known.

The Chinese monastic tell was knit together past times Confucianism. The Emperor occupied the highest seat inwards society, who was seen equally the “son of heaven”-an intermediary betwixt sky as well as mankind as well as his correct to dominion was based on the mandate of heaven. Thus, this meant that a ruler’s reign was conditional depending upon his performance. The monastic tell was farther divided into classes as well as the merchants or traders came lastly inwards this social hierarchy. Thus, it tin can live seen that merchandise was looked downward upon as well as traders were e'er seen amongst suspicion equally they could finance whatsoever anti-government activity or encourage unusual invasions. Hence, unusual traders were also distrusted. There was no arrangement of commercial laws to protect the merchant from official interference. Thus the merchant was nether the strict command of the bureaucracy. This factor affected Sino-Western merchandise relations equally well.
Another belief inwards its ain superiority atomic number 82 the Chinese to expression downward upon whatsoever relations amongst the Westerners. They believed that the sky was round, as well as Earth was foursquare as well as the expanse nether the shadow projected past times the sky was the “Heavenly Middle Kingdom” or China. The corners of the foursquare non nether the celestial emanations were ruled past times the unusual ‘barbarians’. Thus, morally to the Chinese, the “foreign devils” could non live on equal grounds amongst the Chinese.

All this was constituent of the notion of what had been termed equally ‘Sino-centrism’, whereby the Chinese saw themselves equally a distinct as well as separate cultural identity, based on a feel of pride as well as superiority. However, it was the misconception of the Americans who coined this term that the Chinese were a unopen as well as insular society. Sino-centrism was an of import constituent of China’s perception of itself as well as the exterior world. The traditional Chinese mental attitude to foreigners was characterized past times a grade of complacency, bordering on arrogance. However, it also had an chemical constituent of pragmatism as well as it was due to the Chinese wish to protect themselves that they farther unopen the doors to western countries. The Chinese believed that exposure to the foreigners would endanger their social values or incite the local population into rebelling against the Manchu dynasty. 

Finally, inwards the economical sphere the Chinese were rattling self-sufficient.  Primary emphasis was given to agriculture as well as exports similar tea as well as silk were products of traditional labour intensive farm handicrafts that were non much susceptible to modernization. The demand of the local population for imported goods was also non much as well as all the demands were unremarkably met past times local production. It was this self-sustainability which made the Chinese believe that they had null to gain from unusual merchandise as well as much to lose.
Thus it tin can live seen that this imitation feel of superiority as well as economical self-sufficiency atomic number 82 China to seal itself off from unusual intrusion. Whatever merchandise existed amongst the foreigners was highly restrictive as well as took house on Chinese terms.  Such a arrangement was highly frustrating for the westerners, peculiarly the British, at a fourth dimension when they were trying to expand their economical interests all over the world.

English merchandise was carried out mainly through the East Bharat Company, which past times the middle of the 18th century, had outstripped all of its competitors. The wish was directly to set upwards regular merchandise as well as formal political relations amongst China, but China soundless refused. The unusual merchants made constant attempts to ameliorate their bargaining position. This constant pressure level to move into China led to the emergence of a highly formal arrangement of merchandise relations betwixt the Chinese as well as the West inwards 1757 - the Canton or the Cohong System. Although some of its practices had existed before equally well, it was directly recognized equally the only arrangement of interaction amongst the West, as well as continued till the defeat inwards the First Opium War inwards 1842.
 
According to the system, the traders were allowed to maintain their factories as well as trading establishments only at Canton. Their residence would live at Macao, as well as they would live allowed to rest inwards Canton only during the trading flavor (August-March). Foreign ships were also non allowed to anchor anywhere but at Whampoa. In homecoming for the privilege to trade, the Western traders were expected to follow a set of 12 rules as well as regulations that were formally set down. There was a restriction on their movement as well as no foreigner was permitted to pop off beyond Canton. Even there, they were e'er kept out of the urban center walls of Canton as well as confined to the riverbank expanse known equally ‘Thirteen Factories’. They were non allowed to interact amongst the local Chinese, or purchase or sell land, as well as they were nether the jurisdiction of Chinese law. They also had no say inwards the regulation of the tariff policy - the weather condition of merchandise were determined alone past times the Chinese. Their trading activities were confined to the Cohong merchants, who inwards plough were responsible to the Chinese authorities for the skillful conduct of the foreigners as well as for the payment of taxes as well as fees imposed past times the government. They were supervised past times the Hoppo, the Canton Customs Superintendent, a high officeholder deputed from Peking. The highest official was the local governor-general, who was called the Viceroy.

The Cohong merchants were a little grouping of Chinese merchants who had been granted an purplish license to merchandise amongst the Westerners. They bought everything the Westerners brought to China, as well as sold them everything they wanted to choose back.

One of the peculiarities of the Canton arrangement was that it was largely one-sided. The Chinese did non wish European products, piece the Europeans were willing to brand long voyages as well as choose grave risks to secure Chinese goods. The Chinese consequently came to believe that they were dependent on China for their well-being. They came, therefore, to expression upon a threat to halt the merchandise equally a rattling effective weapon to live used inwards controlling the unusual merchants. The Chinese mental attitude postulated that the benevolent Emperor allowed merchandise equally a grade of favour to foreigners. Hence merchandise was non a correct to live insisted upon, but a privilege that could live withdrawn past times China for whatsoever misbehavior. To the Westerners, the weather condition of merchandise were highly objectionable, but they did non wish to endanger the highly profitable trade. Thus from belatedly 18th century, continuous efforts were made to convey nigh revisions inwards the regulations through petitions. Their governments also began to choose involvement inwards the thing equally the merchandise inwards China was carried out through corporations similar the English linguistic communication East Bharat Company, which were backed past times the government. Their shareholders also occupied of import positions inwards the Parliament. So a number of formal diplomatic missions, as well as sometimes royal missions, were sent from London to China.  The Company officials wanted to merchandise at other ports as well as to station a representative at Peking. However, whatsoever attempts to alter the Canton arrangement met amongst consummate failure as well as it continued unchanged past times whatsoever diplomatic effort. It was ane factor that provided the context to the Opium War.

Another factor lay inwards the actual merchandise weather condition betwixt the British as well as the Chinese, as well as a trading nexus that developed betwixt England, China as well as India. By the belatedly 18th century, at that spot was a flourishing triangular trade. The immediate background to Opium War tin can live traced to the British search for a commodity to job inwards telephone substitution for Chinese tea as well as silk. The remainder of merchandise inwards the 18th century was rattling much inwards China’s favour. The Westerners purchased large quantities of tea, silk as well as rhubarb as well as had to convey inwards bullion or specie to purchase these products. This was due to the fact that the Chinese had rattling lilliputian demand for unusual products given the self-sustainability of their economy.

Tea peculiarly was inwards keen demand inwards Britain, becoming pop inwards factories inwards house of alcohol. England also had to furnish tea to the whole of Europe, since it had a monopoly over the trade. In 1793, the total value of tea exports from China was nineteen 1000000 pounds; past times 1830, this had exceeded thirty 1000000 pounds. However, this resulted inwards a heavy springtime of bullion from England, making it a weak economic scheme according to the principles of laissez-faire. During 1775 as well as 1795, the Company’s imports of goods as well as bullion into China amounted to 31.5 1000000 taels, against an export of 56.6 1000000 taels, resulting inwards a 25.1 million-tael deficit. This was a movement of worry as well as the British began their search for commodities to remainder their Chinese trade. This search came to an halt inwards the belatedly 1790s when opium entered the trade. By 1820s, the province of affairs was reversed as well as it was China that was losing bullion to the West inwards telephone substitution for opium. Initially, the British tried to innovate woolen products into China, which were manufactured inwards enough past times the textile manufacturers of Manchester as well as Liverpool. They pose pressure level on the East Bharat Company to observe overseas markets for their woolens, peculiarly inwards China, where the Company was looking for commodities acceptable to the Chinese inwards monastic tell to remainder the trade. However the woolens which the Company took to Canton were sold at a loss since at that spot was no marketplace for it inwards South China, where the warm climate was unsuitable.

Simultaneously, some belatedly 18th century, a novel job faced the East Bharat Company inwards India. This was the number of remittances, i.e., how the revenue collected from Bharat should live transferred to England. This job came upwards equally the Lancashire as well as Manchester manufacturers wanted to halt the import of Indian yarn, which was before sponsored past times these profits inwards monastic tell to protect the nascent cotton fiber manufacture inwards Britain. This number became fifty-fifty to a greater extent than serious after the Charter Act of 1813, past times which the East Bharat Company’s monopoly over Indian merchandise was ended as well as somebody merchandise showed a rapid increase. This job was shortly linked amongst the Chinese trade, which was directly employed to remit colonial gains from India. China as well as Bharat were thus tied together as well as became mutually dependent. This resulted inwards the formation of what tin can live termed equally the ‘First Trade Triangle’.  
At inaugural off Indian coarse cotton fiber yarn was sent to China. It achieved express success. However, United Kingdom of Great Britain as well as Northern Ireland of Britain as well as Northern Republic of Ireland could non takeover the Chinese cotton fiber industries, equally it had done inwards India. Thus past times the belatedly 1790s, the English linguistic communication could non recover the cost toll of the huge cotton fiber supplies brought from India. The value of all British goods imported into China from 1781 to 1793, including woolen fabrics, cot ton yarn as well as cloth as well as metals products, amount ed to only one-sixth of the value of the teas China exported to Britain. Once again, argent was used to pay for Chinese goods. It is estimated that the export of specie to China from 1784 to 1852 amounted to no less than 180 1000000 dollars. This time, however, Indian argent was used, i.e., the profits obtained from Bharat were used to compensate for the demand for tea as well as brand ane constituent of Britain’s Asian merchandise to pay for the other. However it was shortly recognized that this was equally bad equally the payment using British bullion. Hence they began to search for alternative goods. The Western traders finally discovered a rattling profitable production for the Chinese markets – opium. This led to the creation of the ‘Second Trade Triangle’. The British sold manufactured goods inwards Bharat as well as used Indian opium to merchandise inwards tea amongst China. Opium was a narcotic essence derived from the poppy flower. It was inaugural off introduced into China past times the Arabs as well as the Turks inwards the belatedly 7th-early eighth century. It was towards the halt of the 17th century that the exercise of Opium smoking spread all over China as well as shortly attained the proportions of a national vice. Many of the officials as well as the gentry, together amongst people from all classes who could afford it, became addicts. Objections to its job were raised from an early on fourth dimension as well as Opium was a banned substance. This yet did non actually discourage the trade. Instead the whole opium traffic directly became illicit. Officials were ordered to convey it to an end, but they found it likewise profitable equally a source of “squeeze”. Opium thus became a novel source of corruption as well as the quantity of opium kept growing unchecked. Most of the opium came from India, some from Persia, and, towards the last, some Turkish opium was imported past times the Americans. In 1729, the annual import of opium from Bharat was 200 chests. In 1767, this increased to thou chests a year. From 1800 to 1821, the average was nigh 4500 chests a year, but the annual total grew to some 10,000 chests past times 1830 as well as over 40,000 chests past times 1838-39. (A breast unremarkably contained 133 pounds.) By then, the remainder of merchandise had larn unfavourable to China as well as the value of opium imported lonely exceeded that of all the commodities exported. The increment inwards importation was also indicative of an increasing number of users. By the belatedly 1830s, official records cite that at that spot were equally many equally 10 1000000 addicts inwards China.

The British took over the atomic number 82 inwards opium importation from the Portuguese when the East Bharat Company acquired access to a large amount of opium. In 1765, it got command over opium grown inwards large quantities inwards the Bengal province, after the Treaty of Allahabad. In 1773, it established a monopoly of the opium tillage – Bengal opium was cultivated nether Company command as well as sold officially to somebody traders at auctions inwards Calcutta. In 1813, Malwa was annexed, which was known for opium cultivation. By the 1830s, the Company had got command of the ports of shipment, similar Bombay, which enabled it to levy a transit revenue enhancement as well as turn a profit accordingly. In the meantime, the contest betwixt Bengal as well as western Bharat had stimulated the production of to a greater extent than opium at lower prices.

Initially, the Company was direct involved inwards the opium trade. But after 1796, the Company disengaged itself officially from the opium merchandise past times leaving its distribution to the province ships (under somebody traders) which sailed nether the Company’s license. They had the same privileges equally the East Bharat Company. Thus the Company perfected the technique of growing opium cheaply as well as abundantly inwards India, piece piously disowning it inwards China. Legally as well as officially, it was non involved inwards the illicit trade. In 1833, the British authorities abolished the monopoly of the East Bharat Company over the China merchandise through the Second Charter Act. This led to a farther increment inwards the activities of somebody traders, giving an immense boost to the already existing opium smuggling. New firms directly entered the trade, such equally Russell & Company, an American firm. The leading British somebody firm, Jardine, Matheson & Company handled roughly one-third of the total opium merchandise inwards China. Within China itself, a sophisticated network for distribution of opium emerged. This included Chinese collaborators equally well. The opium merchandise could non receive got flourished without this support. The province traders unloaded the consignments along the coast at the isle of Lintin since they were non allowed to whatsoever further. From there, it was the Chinese that used the inland routes to carry it inwards the interiors. They also made huge profits, piece the higher officials turned a blind oculus inwards homecoming for bribes. Thus the opium merchandise was pushed from both sides. Opium merchandise solved the twin problems facing England. Not only had Britain's commercial expansion larn dependent on opium, the merchandise had larn entrenched inwards China equally a powerfully organized smuggling arrangement which corrupted the government. Opium had only increased the unofficial revenue.

By the inaugural off of the 19th century, the province of affairs had larn alarming. Opium addiction shortly became widespread. Virtually all sections of monastic tell became addicts- authorities officials, merchants, scholars, women, regular army men as well as fifty-fifty monks, nuns as well as priests. Drug job thus threatened to undermine only theatre unit of measurement morals, but also social as well as moral foundations of the empire. Opium also had a negative impact on Chinese monastic tell as well as economy. First, drug add-on affected the workforce as well as undermined production, thus opening the way for unusual imports to increment at the expense of China’s domestic industries. Also, large areas which had before been used to grow nutrient crops were directly beingness planted amongst poppy inwards monastic tell to larn the opium cheaper. H5N1 major constituent of the meagre income of an ordinary Chinese was spent on opium. This caused a stagnation inwards the demand for other commodities, amongst a consequent full general languor inwards the market. Business slowed down, the criterion of living fell as well as world services no longer worked smoothly. Another serious repercussion was the drain of silver, the reason of China’s currency, inaugural off sometime after 1821. As opium imports increased, China for the inaugural off fourth dimension began to endure a internet loss of silver, mainly taken out to Bharat equally bullion to pay for opium. British statistics betoken that the springtime of argent from China to United Kingdom of Great Britain as well as Northern Ireland of Britain as well as Northern Republic of Ireland betwixt 1823 as well as 1834 was worth 25.2 1000000 dollars. The telephone substitution charge per unit of measurement betwixt the copper cash used inwards everyday transactions as well as the argent bullion (in the unit of measurement of weight as well as fineness known equally the tael) began to rise. This imposed hardship at all levels of monastic tell – peasants had to pay to a greater extent than equally taxes, merchants charged to a greater extent than for their sales, official revenue enhancement collectors coming together their quotas inwards argent had less copper cash left over equally somebody crush as well as overall authorities revenue declined. Opium smuggling, together amongst the activities of the unusual firms inwards Canton, also created a job of authorization that challenged the powerfulness of the province to rule. Canton as well as other southeastern ports became centres of insubordination as well as corruption. Thus, this combined amongst the prevailing internal crisis as well as external threat to do severe weather condition inwards China. The seat of the Emperor, the existing social hierarchy as well as Confucianism all came nether attack, fifty-fifty before the Opium War had begun. 

Faced amongst such a problem, the Chinese authorities opened a debate amidst Manchus as well as senior officials. The debate lasted for nigh 2 years as well as inwards the end, a minority grouping which favoured an uncompromising as well as fifty-fifty stricter stand upwards against Opium merchandise was adopted. In 1839, an purplish statute inwards 39 articles levied extreme punishments (including expiry penalty) both for trading inwards as well as consumption of opium. The purplish authorities appointed a High Commissioner to Canton to suppress opium trade, Lin Tse-hsu (1785-1850). He arrived at Canton on March tenth 1839, as well as to the surprise of the unusual merchants, took immediate drastic action. He made 1600 arrests as well as confiscated 11,000 pounds of Opium inwards 2 months. He also forced unusual merchants to manus over 20,000 chests of Opium. He burned the Opium inwards a world demonstration as well as scattered the ashes across the sea. When Lin gave the monastic tell that Canton should live completely unopen to unusual trade, the British opened hostilities as well as started the Opium War. Many Chinese saw the state of war equally unprovoked aggression past times the British to hold merchandise inwards opium. It represented a flagrant instance of imperialist aggression, as well as Chinese resistance was a patriotic travail to postage stamp out the evil sapping the Chinese people of their riches as well as health. The purpose played past times the local militia as well as peasant groups was afterwards looked upon past times Communists equally the nurturing of already nowadays patriotic as well as nationalistic groups. The British, on the other hand, viewed the state of war from a different advantage point. For them, it was inwards the interests of gratis merchandise as well as fair justice as well as introduced a novel era inwards China, which woke her from her sleep as well as pose on rails of progress. Since then, the Opium War has been a topic of much academic controversy. The debate is essentially on 2 issues – whether the state of war was inevitable, regardless of opium; as well as whether onus for the state of war lies on the Chinese or the Western powers. Tan Chung has identified 3 broad categories of explanations. Opium is recognized past times all equally beingness the immediate movement of war. However the extent of importance given to it has led to different terms beingness used for the state of war - piece some telephone yell upwards it the inaugural off Sino-British conflict, others telephone yell upwards it the First Opium War. It should also live noted that the term ‘Opium War’ is non of Chinese origin. It was suggested past times Sir Henry Pottinger, a British official. Old Chinese tradition shunned admission of defeat as well as till the 20th century, alluded to it equally Yu-hsin (Foreign Provocation).

John Quincy Adams, the 6th President of the United States, began the debate inwards Dec 1841, when he said that the movement of state of war was kowtow, “the arrogant as well as insupportable pretensions of China, that she volition take away hold commercial intercourse…not upon equal reciprocity but upon the insulting as well as degrading forms of relation betwixt lord as well as vassal”. W.A.P. Martin, a US missionary-scholar, modified this into a rationalized declaration inwards his book, The Awakening of China, viewing the state of war equally “the outcome of a serial of collisions betwixt the conservatism of the extreme orient as well as the progressive spirit of the western world”. These shape constituent of the explanation which Tan Chung terms equally the ‘Cultural War Theory’. According to this view, opium was non of import for the British at all. The top dog job organization was their unequal relations amongst the Chinese government. They were non pleased amongst their handling equally exactly some other tribute-bearing acre as well as demanded diplomatic equality. When the Chinese refused this demand, the British felt justified inwards going to war. Li Chien-nung called the state of war “a conflict of western as well as eastern cultures”, over 3 issues - international relations, commerce as well as unusual trade, as well as jurisdiction. This is similar to the views of a US scholar, E.H. Pritchard, who spoke of cultural difficulties over “the thought of equality”, the social status of the mercantile class, as well as “the different mental attitude towards justice”. Leslie Merchant sees the state of war equally a doctrinal, philosophical clash betwixt 2 cultures as well as 2 notions of authorities as well as society. John K. Fairbank, inwards his before works, also expounded this theory, proverb that Sino-centrism as well as the regressive judicial arrangement were the causative factors inwards the conflict betwixt a dynamic United Kingdom of Great Britain as well as Northern Ireland of Britain as well as Northern Republic of Ireland trying to “civilize” a backward, stagnant China.

It was the legal arrangement of China as well as its enforcement which became the major source of grievance for the foreigners. Chinese legal concepts as well as practices of police force differed greatly from those practices inwards the West. There was “no due procedure of law” nor was at that spot advise of counsel inwards court. The judiciary was non an independent branch of the authorities but it was the local justice who presided over all matters. Moreover, the Chinese police force worked on the premise of taking confessions before belongings “trials”. All this was alien as well as “barbarous” to the foreigners. They wanted their citizens to live exempt from the Chinese police force because of the unusual way they discharged justice as well as the harshness of their sentences. This naturally was non acceptable to the Chinese. It was finally the ‘Lady Hughes’ incident of 1784 that actually antagonized the relations betwixt the 2 nations. This province send had fired a salute as well as accidently killed 2 people. As the gunner managed to escape the captain of the send was caught as well as all merchandise was banned until the gunner surrendered. It was only when he surrendered was merchandise allowed to live resumed. The gunner was as well as then strangulated to death. It was this incident as well as the Chinese explanation that it was a lite penalisation equally they took only ane life for the loss of 2 which shocked the foreigners. Moreover, it was the harshness as well as apparent inhumanness of the Chinese punishments; lack of trials according to European standards as well as the concept of belongings everyone responsible till the culprit was punished angered, frustrated as well as scared the Foreigners.

This persuasion has been criticized past times Chinese communist historians. Tan Chung says that wars cannot live fought only on cultural grounds, which are subjective, physiological elements that never rest constant; at that spot are e'er vested stuff interests. Also, he points out that the chances of a cultural clash, if any, were to a greater extent than likely when the Westerners had settled inwards Canton for the inaugural off time, rather than nearly 150 years later. Even after the war, no major cultural changes were witnessed inwards China. Moreover, the Chinese tributary arrangement had already worn out itself to a large extent past times the middle of the 18th century, when it had been exposed to 2 disruptive influences – the ascent of the Chinese junk merchandise amongst Southeast Asia (Nan-yang); as well as the Canton arrangement of trade.

The side past times side set of explanations has been classified equally the ‘Trade War Perspective’ past times Tan Chung. This theory argues after the Industrial Revolution, United Kingdom of Great Britain as well as Northern Ireland of Britain as well as Northern Republic of Ireland was apace expanding as well as hence desired raw materials equally good equally newer markets for its manufactured goods. China resisted this. Victor Purcell concluded that it was the Industrial Revolution, the regulation of unrestricted merchandise as well as the exercise of gratis competition, which the Chinese did non accept, that contributed to British frustration against China. Also, state of war was seen equally a production of the “trade-obsessed” England's bespeak for “foreign markets”. Fairbank likewise agreed inwards his afterwards works, proverb that it was China’s resistance to the long-term trading involvement of the post-industrial trading monastic tell of United Kingdom of Great Britain as well as Northern Ireland of Britain as well as Northern Republic of Ireland that made the state of war “unavoidable”, a instance of Western expansion clashing amongst China’s traditional order. For him, ane of the key causes of the Opium War “was the expansion of merchandise beyond the limits of the ancient Canton arrangement of regulation”. These arguments consider the larger aim of the conflict to live the small town of commercial relations amongst China on British terms.

This persuasion argues that opium was only a coincidental factor that led to the eventual war. Hsin-poa Chang said opium was a variable, which could receive got been substituted past times whatsoever other commodity; he writes, “…had at that spot been an effective alternative to opium, say molasses or rice, the conflict mightiness receive got been called the Molasses War or the Rice War”. Opium was thus only an musical instrument of British commercial expansion. Vinacke called opium the occasion, as well as non the cause, of the war, which he explained past times the weather condition of Canton trade. Michael Greenburg also suggested that state of war could receive got been fought on whatsoever ‘x’ commodity. Thus state of war would receive got taken house sooner or later, fifty-fifty inwards the absence of opium, since the points of deviation were the mode of merchandise inwards China as well as the British merchants’ wish to larn a favourable marketplace inwards China for the British manufacturers.
The constant attempts made past times the British to modify the Canton Commercial System were all inwards vain equally the Chinese had no wish to concede to the western demands. Such failures presented the British amongst 3 alternatives: (1) abandon the China trade; (2) submit to the Chinese handling or (3) modify the province of affairs past times armed forces means. For Britain, the most powerful commercial empire inwards the world, the inaugural off 2 options were unthinkable, leaving them only amongst the 3rd alternative- job of force. Thus, the fourth dimension was fast approaching for a showdown betwixt the 2 countries.

Some scholars receive got pointed out the flaws inwards this theory. Canton was a well-developed port as well as none of the restrictions hampered the conduct of trade. Moreover, piece the arrangement was monopolistic character, fifty-fifty on the British side the lucrative merchandise was a monopoly of the East Bharat Company till 1833. It tin can live also argued that fifty-fifty inwards Britain, at that spot had e'er been authorities measures to curb sure enough mercantile freedoms which were regarded equally injurious to national interest. So the Chinese authorities must also live granted a similar correct to defend its involvement inwards whatever way it considered best, including imposing restrictions on foreigners’ activities on Chinese soil. Anyway, it is evident that past times 1836, the Canton arrangement had fallen apart. Trade was no longer confined to Canton, the Cohong no longer monopolized it as well as the Company monopoly had given way to competing somebody traders. If it had existed, opium smuggling inwards the way inwards which it developed would non receive got been possible. Thus piece the Canton System definitely provided the context of the Opium War, it can’t explicate its outbreak. The thought of opium equally an accidental movement has been also rejected past times Tan Chung equally ane of the many meaningless ‘ifs’ inwards history - Opium is given to a greater extent than prominence.

The lastly perspective on the state of war has been called the ‘Opium War Theory’ past times Tan Chung. According to this view, Anglo-Chinese conflict was inevitable due to the addictive drug, opium as well as its serious repercussions on Chinese economy, monastic tell as well as polity. It has been propounded past times scholars similar S.W. Williams, Hu Sheng, Maurice Collins as well as Tan Chung himself. Westel Woodbury Willoughby, a US scholar, said at that spot is overwhelming show that the state of war is justifiably called an Opium War. However, he relies for his “evidence” only on what S.W. Williams has written – that the Chinese “seizure as well as destruction” of British opium ignited Sino-British hostility; as well as that China was asked to pay “an indemnity of half dozen 1000000 dollars for the opium thus seized as well as destroyed according to the provision of the Treaty of Nanking”. Hsin-pao Chang has furnished other of import show to back upwards that opium was the movement of the war.

Tan Chung says that the inexpensive as well as abundant availability of opium inwards Bharat as well as the huge profits accrued past times British merchants inwards the merchandise helped to hold it alive. Opium was a commodity that would never make a saturation point, dissimilar cotton. Also, the British needed no pretext to move into China for trade, since the Canton arrangement was already weakening apace inwards the 1830s. That opium was called for to remainder Britain’s unfavourable merchandise vis-à-vis China was a myth created past times the East Bharat Company. He says that United Kingdom of Great Britain as well as Northern Ireland of Britain as well as Northern Republic of Ireland had already achieved a remainder of merchandise past times introducing Indian cotton fiber inwards China inwards the 1780s. So the British justification that opium was introduced to remainder the merchandise cannot live accepted. The top dog number as well as then was to tilt this merchandise inwards Britain's favour. This could be, as well as was, achieved past times opium alone, non whatsoever other commodity similar rice or molasses. It was their obstinacy to hold this merchandise fifty-fifty after Chinese attempts to halt it that led to war. Thus opium was solely held responsible for the war.

The theoretical weakness of this persuasion has been questioned past times Fairbank, who says that British involvement inwards opium was only a recent add-on to the long continued British wish for commercial expansion. Thus the theory fails to recognize the other of import aspects of the conflict. Opium provided the “occasion rather than the sole movement of the war”. As evidence, he points to the fact that opium merchandise was non legalized fifty-fifty after the war. Most of the clauses of the post-war treaties, inwards fact, served British commercial interests. However, this persuasion tin can live critiqued past times pointing out the immediate movement of state of war was the Manchu government’s travail to suppress opium traffic. Secondly, the absence of opium inwards the Treaty was because of the stubborn resistance of the Manchus. In whatsoever case, the British authorities had e'er officially dissociated itself from the opium trade. In fact, the mass of smuggled opium continued to increment after 1842.

Thus, inwards conclusion, it tin can live said that piece British expansionist needs were belike the dominant causes behind the war, the other 2 theories also cannot live discounted. Sino-centrism was an of import psychological belief that acted equally a catalyst inwards the war. The rattling fact that sure enough unresolved issues remained, which resulted inwards the Second Opium War, shows that cultural differences, equally good equally opium, were also factors that influenced the war.